Understanding Change

PART ONE Understanding change Perspectives on change The ethics of organizational change Planned change and its critics Strategic change Building and developing competitive advantage 3 39 73 11 1 147 CHAPTER 1 Perspectives on change 1. 1 Introduction 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. 2. 1 Modernity, progress, and change 1. 2. 2 Pathways to change 1. 3 Structural-functional change: changing structures and functions 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole 1. 3. 2 Structural theory 1. Multiple constituencies: change by negotiation 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests 1. 5 Organizational Development: the humanistic approach to change 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual level 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the group level 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level 1. 6 Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change 1. 6. 1 Conflict, flux, and change 1. 6. 2 People are active agents 1. 6. 3 The critique of the spectator view of knowledge 1. Summary Study q uestions Exercises Further reading References 4 6 6 7 8 13 16 18 20 22 24 24 25 28 28 29 30 33 35 35 36 36 4 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE 1. 1 Introduction This chapter lays the framework for this book by arguing that organizational change is developed within models and frameworks that inform our understanding of the subject. In this chapter we will learn that knowledge and practice of organizational change are influenced by assumptions derived from the models or perspectives we use.For example, if we regard change as a matter of systemic structural arrangements we can make in an organization, then we can see how the analogy of organism or biological system helps to inform our judgements. Because perspectives offer ways of seeing, they will inevitably organize our perception in line with the dominant analogy used. However, analogies are only partial knowledge claims. Four perspectives on change are cited in this chapter: why four perspectives in particular?The answer to that question is str aightforward but you need to understand at this point that a perspective is an overarching approach that contains a variety of theories that have become associated with it. You will see why these are the dominant perspectives once you have read the remainder of this section. First, the structural-functional perspective is the oldest approach to organizational design and therefore change. Like each perspective, it contains a variety of theories that attempted to resolve some of its difficulties as it developed.These theories include the hard systems, systems dynamics, cybernetics, soft systems, criticalsystems heuristics, and postmodern systems thinking (Jackson, 2003). The structuralfunctional perspective encourages us to think about structural arrangements and functional interrelationships within organizations. The development of the opensystems model in the 1950s assisted our understanding further by focusing on how inputs to an organization are transformed into outputs. This is u seful for thinking about how we might change tasks and relationships in a production process.The value of the structural-functional perspective lies in its ability to change the arrangement of tasks and procedures in relation to the customer or client specification. The advantage of the perspective lies in its ability to look at an organization as a control mechanism: that is, to understand the important structural components and to articulate the functional interrelationships between the parts. Inevitably, structural redesign will therefore influence the functions that each part produces for the whole. But the perspective has disadvantages also.Because it is a model for controlling operations, it is therefore mechanistic. It tends to ignore how motivations, behaviours, attitudes, and values contribute to effective performance. The multiple constituencies perspective emerged from dissatisfaction with the structural-functional perspective. Although it was initially associated with th e work of Cyert and March (1963), it increasingly came to adopt a range of theories associated with the action and motives of individual actors rather than with the action of systems per se.The multiple constituencies perspective refers to the way that complex organizations have to negotiate objectives with different groups of stakeholders who have overlapping and often conflicting needs. When we consider hospitals, health PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE trusts, postal services, public bodies, local government, and transnational companies, then we come to recognize that the organization’s needs are inextricably linked to various stakeholder groups. This affects how resources are managed and distributed, as well as how change might be facilitated to maximize efficiency and effectiveness.An investigation of how multiple constituencies bring their own interests and motivations into the organizational arena will help us to provide an informed approach to managing change by recognizing the various resource needs of different groups. We can recognize the advantage of this perspective in drawing attention to the various stakeholder needs but we can also recognize that it is limited to a partial analysis. It is less concerned with developing people. It also has a limited view of power. Consequently this reduces organizational change to consensual negotiation between pluralities of groups.Those academics and practitioners that adopt the Organizational Development perspective would share much with the two previous perspectives because it embraces both a systems approach and a focus on stakeholders and governance. However, it is distinguished by its methodology of action research as much as it is by its ethical approach to developing organizations through people. For the first time we begin to see people as resources to be developed rather than as simply costs on a balance sheet. This perspective emerged from the human relations approach, which focused on personal and grou p development.However, unlike the two previous perspectives, it argues that maximum efficiency and effectiveness cannot be achieved by dealing with tasks, procedures, and customers’ or clients’ needs without looking at the quality of management, leadership, communication, culture, motivation, and values. Because the Organizational Development (OD) perspective on change emerged out of human resource theory, it became a synthesis of structural functionalism and behavioural research. The two main contributions of this approach are the focus on social characteristics and ts methodology dedicated to a humanistic approach to change and development. OD is also associated with the idea of planned change and the need to clearly diagnose clients’ needs before making an intervention. These provide major advantages in thinking about change but they are also partial and limited to conceptualizing change as a matter of consensus, as does each perspective mentioned so far. The final perspective—Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change— reflects the challenges and assumptions of Critical Theory.It cannot be regarded as a unified perspective, as the others can, because it does not seek to offer solutions to change problems. But it does go further than any of the other perspectives in demonstrating that people, rather than systems, are the main element of analysis in any change theory. Each of the other perspectives tends to reify human action. By contrast, this perspective seeks to redress the balance by arguing that people are active agents of change. It also brings another important element under scrutiny.That is, each of the other perspectives focuses on rational change. This has implications for designing and planning change as a linear sequence of events. However, if change programmes ignore emergent processes that result more from conflict, flux, and uncertainty than from consensus and stability, then intervention strategies will have a limited and often 5 6 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE unintended effect. Because this perspective is derived from Critical Theory we should not assume that it is immune to criticism. The main criticism is that it does not offer solutions.It does not provide useful intervention strategies. It does, however, make us stop and think before we act. You should now be clear that each perspective contains a range of theories that share assumptions, methods, and approaches. These can be stated simply as: 1. A focus on systems and structures (the structural-functional perspective). 2. A focus on governance (the multiple constituencies perspective). 3. A focus on behavioural improvement through personal and Organizational Development (the OD perspective). 4.A focus on constant critique (Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change). A simple reminder of the focus is: systems, governance, behaviour, and critique. The argument throughout the book is that to manage change you need to un derstand these interweaving debates. In this chapter we will: †¢ Explain the benefits and limitations of change contained within the structural-functional perspective. †¢ Examine how a multiple constituencies perspective provides arguments for involving stakeholders in complex change initiatives. Explore the value of human resource and organization development interventions as well as their limitations in planned change initiatives. †¢ Appreciate why organizational change may be characterized better by conflict, flux, and uncertainty. †¢ Consider the source of creativity. †¢ Appreciate the role of Critical Theory in understanding organizational change. 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. 2. 1 Modernity, progress, and change It is important to contextualize the four perspectives of this chapter by illustrating that each emerged from, or in reaction to, the process of modernism.The term ‘modernism’ was originally used to describe the new machine age of the early twentieth century, which reflected progress through the application of scientific principles, order, and control. Scientific principles emerged from the pursuit of rationality embedded in the philosophy of the Enlightenment. The twentieth century was influenced PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE by progressive movements in art and architecture, but the new age was eventually associated with negative qualities that, paradoxically, were linked to its greatest triumph—the machine age.The new machine age was characterized by large-scale movements, revolutions, and world wars which all proclaimed progress through the application of machine technology or through the metaphor of the machine as the embodiment of efficiency and effectiveness. This was no more apparent than in business and management, where modernity reflected the task of controlling large-scale organizations. Techniques or processes such as bureaucracy, Taylorism, and Fordism came to reflect the new managerialism of th e machine age in which the principles of measurement and calculation came to dominate thinking.This emphasis on rational calculation had advantages in the form of mass production of cheap goods but, to achieve this, the human cogs in the machine were alienated by a technology that largely ignored social practices. You should therefore be aware that the structural-functional perspective emerged at the time when modernism suggested progress through the application of rational principles. It should be no surprise, then, that it tended to focus on task and throughput by using the metaphor of organism as machine. The perspective referred to as multiple constituencies emerged in the 1960s.It was the first to challenge the naive rationalism of the structural-functional perspective by arguing that an organization is not equivalent to a biological entity and that therefore the organic model was not appropriate to organizations. An organization was better conceived as a ‘legal fictionâ €™ (Shafritz and Ott, 1991). This had the advantage of persuading us that progress is simply a result of social processes and that all organizations are no more than devices to achieve certain objectives. The perspective helped to establish the idea of change through governance.Organizational Development has been the main tradition of organizational change and has much to recommend it, such as a declared humanistic commitment to change. It has also developed useful techniques and methods, but its use of the biological model limits its critique. The perspective we call ‘Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change’ is united only by its objection to modernism. It therefore provides a useful counterbalance to the other perspectives by offering criticism of the conventional wisdom. But it also suggests that human volition and creativity are a long way from the modernist assumptions of progress. 1. 2. 2 Pathways to change Each perspective contains theories that lead to a change intervention. The phrase ‘change intervention’ refers to change actions taken at a strategic level to help an organization become more effective. A perspective can therefore be regarded as a model for understanding how a subject can be understood. Advocates of a perspective develop theories to inform their views and they construct methodologies to test the accuracy of their various theories within a perspective. However, each perspective is open to criticism precisely because it contains assumptions about organizational reality.Each is therefore valuable as a framework 8 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Figure 1. 1 Pathways to change STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL CHANGE Change occurs for dysfunctional reasons when internal functions fail or when structures do not reflect the rational design of the best system INTERVENTIONS focus on the alignment of functional relationships and the structural re-design of the system to accommodate changing external environmental conditions MULTIPLE CONSTITUENCIES Change is a negotiated order and organizations are arenas in which internal groups and external stakeholders seek to exert influenceINTERVENTIONS focus on contractual relationships. A distinction is made between a formal contract and an informal or psychological contract ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Change is planned once needs are diagnosed INTERVENTIONS focus on both personal and Organizational Development and change CREATIVITY, VOLITION AND CRITICAL THEORY Change results from conflict not consensus INTERVENTIONS are replaced by critical analysis for change, but in the interest of validity we need to be cautious about the claims to certainty that each makes.We would be wise, therefore, to view these perspectives as pathways to understand organizational change. We can take the analogy further and suggest that each perspective represents a pathway through a minefield of conceptual difficulties. Each perspective is illustrated in Figure 1. 1. 1. 3 Structural-fun ctional change: changing structures and functions Structural-functional change is the oldest perspective on organizational change. This perspective is also known as structural-functional analysis. It is effectively a social-systems PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE iew of organizations as opposed to the mechanistic or closed-systems perspective of physics. Henry Fayol was one of the first writers to make the link between structure and function. In his 1916 book General and Industrial Management, he describes the relationship between organizations and biology in terms of an analogy. Thus he points out that, just as organisms evolve and become more sophisticated in their structural properties, so do organizations. We can see why the organic analogy is important to organizations when we consider Fayol’s description of specialization and differentiation.For example, [s]pecialization belongs to the natural order; it is observable in the animal world, where the more highly developed the creat ure the more highly differentiated its organs; it is observable in human societies where the more important the body corporate the closer its relationship between structure and function. As a society grows, so new organs develop destined to replace the single one performing all functions in the primitive state. (Fayol, 1916: 19) 9 Thus, as organizations grow and develop, they become much more complex and require new types of structure.In order to deal with this complexity, work has to be simplified through the division of labour. Some years later, structural-functional analysis viewed the study of organizations as the analysis of both structural and functional interrelationships between elements in an organizational system. Structural-functional analysis of an organization begins with the assumption that organizations are cooperative systems. Whilst they are constituted by individuals, this is less relevant than the fact that they are systems designed to coordinate the actions of in dividuals. They are better viewed, therefore, as adaptive organisms.This means that any organizational system ‘is deemed to have basic needs†¦ related to self-maintenance†¦ and†¦ self-defence’ (Selznick, 1948: 26). Selznick suggests that organizations, as systems, maintain themselves by means of five essential imperatives, described as follows: 1. The security of the organization as a whole in relation to social forces in its environment. This imperative requires continuous attention to the possibilities of encroachment and to the forestalling of threatened aggressions or deleterious (though perhaps unintended) consequences of the actions of others. 2.The stability of the lines of authority and communication. One of the persistent reference points of administrative decision is the weighing of consequences for the continued capacity of leadership to control and to have access to the personnel or ranks. 3. The stability of informal relations within the orga nization. Ties of sentiment and self-interest are evolved as unacknowledged but effective mechanisms for adjustment of individuals and subgroups to the conditions of life within the organization. These ties represent a cementing of relationships which sustains the formal 10 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE uthority in day-to-day operations and widens opportunities for effective communication. ‘Consequently, attempts to â€Å"upset† the informal structure†¦ will normally be met with considerable resistance. ’ 4. The continuity of policy and of the sources of its determination. For each level within the organization, and for the organization as a whole, it is necessary that there be a sense that action taken in the light of a given policy will not be placed in continuous jeopardy. Arbitrary or unpredictable changes in policy undermine the significance of (and therefore the attention to) day-to-day action by injecting a note of caprice.At the same time, the organization wi ll seek stable roots (or firm statutory authority, or popular mandate) so that a sense of the permanency and legitimacy of its acts will be achieved. 5. A homogeneity of outlook with respect to the meaning and role of the organization. To minimize disaffection requires a unity derived from a common understanding of what the character of the organization is meant to be. When this homogeneity breaks down, as in situations of internal conflict over basic issues, the continued existence of the organization is endangered.On the other hand, one of the signs of a ‘healthy’ organization is the ability to orient new members effectively and readily slough off those who cannot be adapted to the established outlook. (Selznick, 1948) These imperatives are the mechanisms of a stable ‘organic’ system that is applied by analogy to an organization. One particularly relevant assumption of this analogy, and indeed of structural functionalism in general, is that of compulsion. There is little room for individuals to exercise imagination because organizations are viewed as constraining mechanisms that compel people to act in a particular way.When viewed through a structural-functional frame, organizational analysis proceeds by following three basic assumptions, as indicated below. 1. Organizations are cooperative systems with adaptive social structures, made up of interacting individuals, subgroups, and formal and informal relationships. 2. Organizations contain variable aspects, such as goals, which are linked to needs and self-defence mechanisms. 3. Organizations are determined by constraints and characterized by transformations when adjustments to needs are required.Such adjustments are required to deal with dysfunctions caused by instability in the operating environment. The biological sciences were seen as rescuing social science from the laws of traditional Newtonian physics, which saw everything as a closed system (Katz and Kahn, 1966: 16). Consequ ently, the emergence of the open-systems model, which was influenced by von Bertalanffy’s ‘general system theory’, enables us to view organizations as continuous flows of inputs, transformations, and outputs beyond their own boundaries. In 1966 Katz and Kahn articulated the concept of an organization as anPERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE open system. This was reinforced by Thompson’s systems contingency perspective in 1967. What emerged was an idea of an organizational system as an artificial rational construction designed to improve work performance. Unlike the closed systems of physical sciences, social (and biological) systems depend on, and interact with, their external environments. For Katz and Kahn, the main difficulty in proactively managing strategic change results from the fact that organizations have in-built protective devices to maintain stability. Changing these patterns is very difficult.Unintended change often occurs when organizations drift from the ir original aims. As Katz and Kahn indicate: [t]he major misconception is the failure to recognize fully that the organization is continually dependent upon inputs from the environment and that the inflow of materials and human energy is not a constant. The fact that organizations have built-in protective devices to maintain stability and that they are notoriously difficult to change in the direction of some reformer’s desires should not obscure the realities of the dynamic interrelationships of any social structure with its social and natural environment.The very efforts of the organization to maintain a constant external environment produce changes in organizational structure. The reaction to changed inputs to mute their possible revolutionary implications also results in changes. (Katz and Kahn, 1966: 278) 1 1 The open-systems model expresses the relationship between the elements as indicated by Figure 1. 2. Figure 1. 2 The open-systems model of Katz and Kahn ENVIRONMENT T ask Technology INPUTS Human, financial information, materials Management OUTPUTS Products and services Structure People 12 UNDERSTANDING CHANGEThe organization has inputs that are then transformed through a variety of management functions. These are designed to achieve the best possible organizational design by coordinating the task, through the use of technology by people who are structured or organized in a way that is both efficient and effective. x Stop and think 1. 1 Identify an organization and illustrate its inputs, outputs, and transformational processes. Provide details on how the internal processes are managed and controlled. Following Katz and Kahn, the open-systems model contains eight characteristics: 1.Importing energy from the external environment. Thus, just as the biological cell receives oxygen from the bloodstream or the body takes in oxygen from the air and food from the external world, the organization draws energy from other institutions. 2. Throughput is a phr ase used in many organizations, meaning that, as open systems, organizations transform the energy available to them. Just as the body converts starch and sugar into heat and action, an organization takes raw inputs such as materials and people and transforms them by producing products or services.Katz and Kahn suggest that, just as the personality converts chemical and electrical forms of stimulation into sensory qualities, and information into thought patterns, so the organization creates a new product, or processes materials, or trains people, or provides a service. 3. Output is essentially the service or product. Just as the biological organism exports from the lungs physiological products like carbon dioxide that help to maintain plants in the immediate environment, the organization provides customers with an output they value. 4.Systems are cycles of events in which the product is exported into the environment, where it furnishes sources of energy for repetition of the cycle of activities. Thus energy is the exchange of inputs and outputs with the external environment. For example, raw materials and human labour are turned into products and services, which are then marketed for monetary return, which is then used to obtain more raw materials and labour and perpetuates the cycle of activities. 5. Entropy is a process described by Katz and Kahn as ‘a universal law of nature in which all forms of organization move toward disorganization or death’.For example, ‘all complex physical systems move toward simple random distribution of their elements and biological organisms also run down and perish’. Therefore the survival of the organization requires the ‘arrest of the entropic process’. This is overcome because the organization imports more energy from its environment than it expends. In other words, ‘social organizations will seek to improve their survival position and to acquire in their reserves a comfortable marg in of operation’. Organizations do go out of business but they can replenish themselves.As PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Katz and Kahn point out, ‘social systems, however, are not anchored in the same physical constancies as biological organisms and so are capable of almost indefinite arresting of the entropic process. Nevertheless the number of organizations which go out of existence every year is large. ’ 6. Information input, negative feedback, and the coding process mean that all inputs are also ‘informative in character and furnish signals to the structure about the environment and about its own functioning in relation to the environment’.Furthermore, the ‘simplest type of information input found in all systems is negative feedback’, which ‘enables the system to correct its deviations from course’. Katz and Kahn see this as analogous to the digestive system, in which selective signals are absorbed or assimilated. Terms like ad aptation and assimilation reflect the biological analogy because an organization responds only to those signals to which it is adapted, and reacts to the information signals to which it is attuned.Katz and Kahn argue that, rather like the selection process in nature, the term coding reflects the selective mechanisms of a system by which incoming materials are either rejected or accepted and translated for the structure. 7. Organizations, like biological systems, are not motionless, so there can never be a true equilibrium. Instead, we must understand that organizations, like organisms, develop a steady state or ‘continuous inflow of energy from the external environment and a continuous export of the products of the system’.The biological analogy is illustrated by the ‘catabolic and anabolic processes of tissue breakdown and restoration within the body’ that ‘preserve a steady state so that the organism from time to time is not the identical organism i t was but a highly similar organism’. Related to this are what they call the ‘homeostatic processes’ for the regulation of body temperature. Thus, as external conditions of humidity and temperature vary, the temperature of the body remains the same because it is regulated by the endocrine glands. The steady state and dynamic homeostasis of organizations are regulated by the organization’s subsystems. . Organizations ‘move in the direction of differentiation and elaboration’. That is, in biological systems genetic change occurs: organisms move from primitive to complex arrangements in order to survive. Similarly, as organizations mature they become increasingly diffuse. Thus they ‘move toward the multiplication and elaboration of roles with greater specialization of function’. 13 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole As Michael Jackson states, ‘a system is a complex whole the functioning of which depends upon its parts a nd the interactions of those parts’ (2003: 3).Broadly speaking, we can think of three types of system: †¢ Natural biological systems. †¢ Social systems, such as families and religious and political institutions, which are socially constructed entities designed to accommodate relationships between people. 14 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE †¢ Artificial or mechanical systems, such as built environments and information systems, which are designed to make improvements to living or work arrangements. One of the advantages of systems theory, as Jackson informs us, is that it is not reductive.That is, it does not seek to reduce complexity by breaking it down into its component parts. Systems theory seeks to understand phenomena as wholes and consequently the term ‘holism’ is sometimes used to illustrate that a system needs to be seen in its entirety. The idea of holism is articulated by Thompson (1967): Approached as a natural system, the complex organization is a set of interdependent parts which together make up a whole because each contribute something and receive something from a whole, which in turn is interdependent with some larger environment.Survival of the system is taken to be the goal, and the parts and their relationships presumably are determined through evolutionary processes. Dysfunctions are conceivable, but it is assumed that an offending part will adjust to produce a net positive contribution or be disengaged, or else the system will degenerate. Central to the natural-systems approach is the concept of homeostasis, or self stabilization, which spontaneously, or naturally, governs the necessary relationships among parts and activities and thereby keeps the system viable in the face of disturbances stemming from the environment. (Thompson, 1967: 283)Systems theory seeks to explain complex interrelationships among organizational elements and external variables by using quantitative techniques. Because they see them as continua lly changing dynamic equilibria, systems theorists therefore view organizations as designed to cope with and manage change. An example of this is Weiner’s model of an organization as an adaptive system. Weiner uses the term ‘cybernetics’ (from the Greek for ‘steersman’) to describe a study of structures and functions of control, and information processing systems in both animals and machines. Thus, such systems are able to regulate themselves.In biological systems this is a natural process, whereas an organization’s systems must be designed. The overly mechanistic approach to viewing artificial systems needs to be balanced against two concerns related to the environment in which the organization exists: 1. Organizations are also social systems: any technical system requires people to operate it. Consequently their needs must be designed into the technical system. 2. Organizations have contingencies. In other words, the technology used by the o rganization, the nature of the industry it operates in, the competences of thePERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE staff who work for it, their motivations and leadership are also important contingencies that affect an organization’s performance. Each concern reflects the view that any change interaction must incorporate these constraints into the design of the new (changed) systems model. For example, if an organization is seen as a social system and not simply a technical system, then we must come to recognize the way in which people have to live, work, and engage in some way with the technical system.For systems designers such as architects and computer programmers it is therefore important to involve the people affected by the system. 15 x Stop and think 1. 2 Think of a technical system that you might redesign if asked to do so by an organization. For example, this might be an IT system, a production system, use of a physical space, or an administrative system. If you do not involve in its design the people who will eventually use the system, what negative outcomes might emerge? The link between organizational systems design and contingency theory illustrates how systems theory developed from a simple biological analogy.Galbraith’s (1973) book made a clear link between the functional components, organizational structures, and contingent circumstances of an organization. For example, Galbraith’s approach invites us to look for: †¢ The type and quality of information required in conditions of certainty or uncertainty. †¢ The degree of interdependence between the various functional components. †¢ Mechanisms that enable organizational adaptation. Table 1. 1 illustrates how information within the system affects an organization’s ability to take action towards change. The degree to which hange can be planned depends upon the amount of reliable information in the system. When the quality of information is high, changes can be planned but are unlikely to be major; when conditions are unpredictable, information is unreliable and the degree of success in any change initiative is low. We can therefore state that the greater the level of uncertainty, the more the organization must make provisional judgements and be ready to change things quickly. Contingency theorists who work within this perspective view organizational change as the degree of control an organization has over circumstances.Thus we can formulate a simple question for this purpose: ‘how wide is the gap between the amounts of information required by this organization at this time? ’ If we take the 2008 world banking crisis as an example, we can illustrate this point. During the month of 16 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Table 1. 1 Control over circumstances: situations where significant change is inevitable The likelihood of major strategic change is low when: The situation is highly predictable. Traditional roles and procedures guide action. The qua lity of information is high.The likelihood of major strategic change is high when: The situation is not predictable. New procedures are required. The quality of information is low. October 2008, protracted negotiations between President Bush and the US Senate representatives, unhappy with his initial plans, eventually resulted in a rescue package for US banks. This was followed by the British Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, partly nationalizing some UK banks. Members of the G7 countries lowered interest rates around the world at the same time, also attempting to find a coordinated approach to the world economic crisis.The reality was that, at the time, no one could realistically estimate its extent: the information gap was simply too large. No one really knew who owed money to whom; nor did anyone know what impact the banking crisis was likely to have on other sectors of the world economy. Thus, attempting to steer change was impossible because there was insufficient information to ma ke reliable decisions. Although this is an extreme example, many organizations face similar problems to varying degrees. In situations of severe unpredictability caused by lack of information, managing planned change becomes highly problematic.The solution, according to Galbraith, is to find new solutions: The ability of an organization to successfully coordinate its activities by goal setting, hierarchy, and rules depends on the combination of the frequency of exceptions and the capacity of the hierarchy to handle them. As task uncertainty increases, the number of exceptions increases until the hierarchy is overloaded. Then the organization must employ new design strategies. Either it can act in two ways to reduce the amount of information that is processed, or it can act to increase its capacity to handle more information.An organization may choose to develop in both of these ways. (Galbraith, 1973: 312) 1. 3. 2 Structural theory The structures of organizations are considered to b e amenable to change. Organizations are viewed as rational and should be designed to achieve their objectives. The Classical School of Management argued that all organizations should be designed scientifically. The main contributors to the school were Henry Fayol, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Charles Babbage, Daniel McCullum, Frederick Winslow Taylor, and Max Weber. For these writers, organizational efficiency was achieved through the rational design of organizations.The Classical School assumed that there was a best structure for any organization, related to the environment in which the organization operated. The design of an organization was related to specialization and to the division of labour. Specialization is the extent to which highly skilled operations and individuals are required. Because the design of organizations was seen as a purely rational activity, problems or dysfunctions were seen to result from structural imperfections or flaws that could be solved by changing the org anization’s structure.Furthermore, although the Classical School considered that a bureaucratic structure was the best means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness, by the 1950s this view was increasingly challenged. The first challenge emerged with the work of Burns and Stalker (1961), who were interested in the rapidly changing electronics industry in Britain, and in Scotland in particular. Their research revealed that organizations in stable operating environments are heavily dependent on control mechanisms and therefore require mechanistic structures.Conversely, the newer industries based on, or developing, micro-electronic technology required organic structures in order to meet situations that are changing. The message, therefore, was that the rate of organizational change is critical to organizations. Where they have to meet rapidly changing circumstances and conditions, and where technology is critical to their survival, then organic structures need to be designed. Th is would also be true today of the fashion industry, where styles change quickly and competition for change requires organizations to get goods into the high street quickly.In the following year Blau and Scott (1962) argued that organizations have both a formal structure and an informal aspect to them. The formal structure determines the standard rules and regulations: for example, a highly structured organization operating bureaucratic procedures is managed through complex rules, policies, frameworks, and desk instructions. However, they argued that it is impossible to understand how organizations are structured by simply looking at rules and regulations without understanding the informal aspect of the organization.Their argument was heavily influenced by Barnard’s (1938) book, The Functions of the Executive, and suggested that the informal organization reflects unconscious processes. In other words, habits, attitudes, and assumptions of people are critical to performance. T his was clearly an early recognition that change requires more than structural redesign because it suggested that senior managers have to align the structure with what we call today the organization’s culture. The earlier work of Max Weber in the 1920s reflected his concerns with specialization.By the 1960s academics used the word ‘differentiation’ to reflect this but also to indicate how specialization is affected by increasingly complex environments. In relation to organizational change, we can note that the process of differentiation— increased complexity of organization—suggests that diverse forces are responsible for pulling organizations apart. This process of differentiation therefore means that 17 18 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE organizational change is required in order to integrate the organization with its new environment.To put this more succinctly, differentiation requires integration. This particular concern was articulated by Lawrence and Lor sch (1969) in their book, Developing Organizations: diagnosis and action. It also reflects the emphasis on design since change planning is required to deal with uncertainty caused by rapidly changing circumstances. This was reinforced by Davis and Lawrence’s (1977) argument that a matrix organization was required when external change was forced upon organizations. Accordingly, they argue that change in design is therefore determined by three conditions: 1.Outside pressure for dual focus. What they mean by this is that some companies need to focus attention both on complex technical issues and on the unique requirements of the customer; this dual focus requires a matrix structure. 2. Pressures for high information-processing capacity. The second reason to adopt a matrix structure is a requirement for high information-processing capacity among an organization’s members. The failure to construct a matrix organization in such circumstances will lead to information overload . 3. Pressure for shared resources.When organizations are under pressure to achieve economies of scale, they need to find ways of utilizing scarce human resources to meet quality standards. Both systems theory and structural theory share the view that organizations are rational and serve utilitarian purposes. That is, organizations are viewed as a means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. They do this by identifying clear goals. The structural-functional systems perspective is therefore described as rational because it assumes a relatively simple cause and effect relationship among variables related to functional integration and structural change.As a perspective, it is clear about what it seeks to achieve. Organizational change is relatively straightforward: we either change functional relationships in order to achieve harmony or we change the design of the organization in order to meet the complexity of its environment. 1. 4 Multiple constituencies: change by negotiation In a dvancing a critique of the structural-functional perspective Michael Keeley (1983) argues that it is common to model organizations after biological systems. In most texts organizations are depicted as ‘social actors’ who possess the distinguishing features of living beings such as goals and needs.By contrast, individuals are portrayed as functional ‘members’ filling roles and serving as ‘human resources’ to further the organization’s ends. The organic model is useful mainly for addressing survival needs, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE but one difficulty is that it tends to confuse the goals of an organization with the goals of powerful individuals. The structural-functional perspective presents a reified and overrational picture of social systems. By contrast, the multiple constituencies perspective does not assume that organizations exist independently from the people who work for them or interact with them.Multiple constituency theory was firs t outlined by Cyert and March in their book A Behavioural Theory of the Firm (1963), which describes organizations as coalitions of self-interested participants. Organizational goals, they argue, change as a result of bargaining processes because an organization is a dynamic coalition of individuals and groups, all of which have different demands. The perspective focuses on how goals are achieved and whose interests are satisfied and affected by the actions taken in the name of the organization.If we think, therefore, of an organization containing a number of groups and external stakeholders, all of which have differing interests, then we can consider how organizational change affects each different group, or alternatively how each may make demands on an organization to change its strategy. The multiple constituencies perspective focuses on the way in which resources are managed and distributed among organizational members and stakeholders in the interests of governance. 19 x Stop a nd think 1. 3 Imagine that you start a new job as a travel executive and are required to visit overseas destinations six times a year.You chose this job because you were excited by the prospect of overseas travel. As an incentive, employees are permitted to stay in the destination for two days after they have completed their tasks. Consequently executives are motivated to choose an interesting destination. Your organization operates from two different sites in the UK. During your first year of employment you hear rumours that the person who allocates staff to destinations ‘cherry picks’ the best for herself and then for friends or colleagues who work with her at the main site.You begin to realize that the rumours have a ring of truth about them. What do you do? Try to ingratiate yourself with the decision maker by becoming friends? Offer to take on more work if she offers you one or two better destinations? Should you take the issue to her line manager at the risk of be coming unpopular? Or do you accept the situation for what it is and that life is not fair? How do you bargain for change? The multiple constituencies perspective criticizes the structural-functional approach for making it difficult to achieve conceptual clarity about what constitutes organizational effectiveness.For example, Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch argue that effectiveness statements are evaluative and descriptive. Generally they are not attempts to answer the question ‘how is an entity X performing? ’ but usually ‘how well is entity X performing? ’ and often ‘how much better should entity X perform? ’ The central differentiation among current effectiveness statements is how they specify the evaluation criteria used to define how well the entity is performing or could perform (Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch, 1980: 211). As a result, the multiple 20UNDERSTANDING CHANGE constituency view treats organizations as systems with differential asse ssments of effectiveness by different constituencies. Although the interests of internal groups (for example, executives, managers, production workers, and so forth) and external stakeholders (for example, clients, shareholders, government regulators, suppliers, and so forth) may overlap, they each have specific interests and priorities or goals they seek to pursue. Each constituency brings its own interests and motivations into the organizational arena.We can therefore consider organizations as webs of fluid interactions between different groups of people whose interests keep changing. The multiple constituencies approach is therefore a means to identify the actions and motivations of people. More importantly, it reflects organizational change as a continuously negotiable order because interests and coalitions change over time. Although the multiple constituencies perspective originated with Cyert and March, it is rooted in the social contract tradition of political and moral argum ent.The idea of contract theory emerged in the seventeenth century with the political theorists Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In the twentieth century such theories have become the basis for political theorists (as we will see in Chapter 7) and writers concerned with corporate ethics (see Chapter 2). 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests Since stakeholders reflect dynamic interests, change agents need to learn how to interact with them. There are various ways of doing this. For example, Mitroff (1983) suggests seven approaches.These are: 1. The imperative approach, which identifies stakeholders who feel strongly about an organization’s proposed policies or actions. This approach requires making a list of as many stakeholders as possible and interacting with them to resolve concerns. 2. The positional approach, which identifies stakeholders who occupy formal positions in a policy-making structure. For example, health trusts, schools, colleges, universities, and charities are required to have boards of governors who must oversee the operations of such organizations.Many boards of governors can be identified from organization charts or legal documents. 3. The reputational approach entails asking various knowledgeable or important people to nominate those they believe to have a stake in the organization. 4. The social participation approach identifies individuals or groups of stakeholders who may have an interest in a policy-related issue for the organization. For example, members of committees, and people who might normally be excluded because they are not so visible, or who do not normally have the opportunity to articulate their views, will be represented. 5.The opinion-leadership approach identifies individuals who have access to leverage of some sort. Examples include informed professionals, commentators, and editors of important newspapers or journals. PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE 6. The demographic approach identifies stakeholders by charac teristics such as age, sex, race, occupation, religion, place of birth, and level of education. 7. The focal organization approach seeks to identify individuals and organizations that have important relationships with the focal organization. That is, suppliers, employees, customers or clients, allies, competitors, regulators.The multiple constituencies perspective suggests that, prior to any change initiative, change agents should analyse the following issues: †¢ The purposes and motivations of a stakeholder. †¢ The resources of a stakeholder. These will include material, symbolic, and physical resources, as well as informational resources and skills. †¢ Special knowledge and opinions of the stakeholder. †¢ Stakeholders’ commitments to the organization and expertise. †¢ Relationships between stakeholders, focusing particularly on the amount of power (or authority), responsibility, and accountability they have. The extent of the network of interdepende nt relationships among stakeholders. †¢ The extent to which a change in strategy can be identified in the interests of any one particular stakeholder. 21 Such an analysis of stakeholder interests suggests that whilst stakeholders are generally supportive and have an interest in the organization, they can also become a negative influence on it. They might indeed reflect a threat and become a barrier to organizational change. Mitroff therefore suggests a number of options for influencing or changing the views and actions of particular stakeholders. We can: †¢ Simply exercise power and authority by ommanding the stakeholder to comply. †¢ Appeal to reason and therefore attempt to persuade the stakeholder. †¢ Engage in tactical bargaining with a stakeholder. †¢ Negotiate in order to reach a compromise. †¢ Engage in problem solving by sharing information, debating, and arriving at mutually agreed perceptions. The multiple constituencies perspective reflects a view of social systems in which people take actions and engage in activities to maximize their own interests. They also collude with others and engage in purposeful activity. Negotiation of organizational change revolves around three central issues: 1.Changing organizational objectives requires that leaders be able to re-evaluate the organization’s current mission, purposes, objectives, and goals, and mobilize action through inspiration. Such leaders need to embrace inspirational leadership. 22 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE 2. The ability to develop and mobilize intellectual capital by using the combined resources held by all stakeholders creatively. This should include the identification and cultivation of scarce resources, skills, and capital. 3. The ability to sustain cooperation and to eliminate conflict among stakeholders so that ethical, moral, and cooperative understanding is achieved.The perspective argues that it is constituencies of people, rather than organizations, that h ave goals and objectives. Consequently, it moves us away from the problem of reification, because stakeholder interests must be negotiated. Yet it still assumes that people act rationally through an appeal to the common good. The perspective draws us towards interventions that focus on a concern with organizational and personal values, social justice, and the distribution of rights and obligations. It provides a useful way forward for organizations in the public domain that are subjected to public scrutiny through governance. . 5 Organizational Development: the humanistic approach to change Organizational Development (OD) is derived from human resource theory or organizational behaviour. It dates back to the Hawthorne experiments, which began in the Western Electrical Company in 1927. Elton Mayo and his team began these experiments by using the same assumptions as the structural-functional perspective: that is, they initially sought to investigate improvements to organizational effi ciency by redesigning an organization’s environment along scientific principles.The experiments focused on rational pragmatic concerns such as technology and work performance, the rate of flow of materials, and throughput of a factory system. One can therefore recognize the early development of open-systems theory and structural design within these experiments. Their lack of success meant that the problem of efficiency and effectiveness was refocused towards socio-psychological factors, such as group norms. One interesting source dating back to 1926 was Mary Parker Follett’s description of ‘The Giving of Orders’ (1926).Follett argued that psychology could make an important contribution to understanding motivational relationships in the workplace. One example she discusses is the importance of understanding the law of the situation. Once this is discovered, better attitudes follow. She suggested that giving orders in a positive manner facilitated more harmo nious attitudes within the workplace. But related concerns that began with the Second World War later paved the way for a more sophisticated social science concerned with behaviour in organizations.In particular, a concern to identify effective leadership and to enhance workgroup relationships was paramount because of the American army’s focus on morale. As a result, many academics emerged from this tradition with a clear focus on the relationship PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE between leadership, motivation, and group dynamics. The investigation of individual and organizational needs was part of this use of applied social science. An early example was Maslow’s research, which resulted in his paper ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’ (1943).The awareness that human needs impact on organizations was a theme developed further in McGregor’s The Human Side of Enterprise (1957). By the late 1960s and 1970s OD emerged from this behavioural research as a distinct disci pline. Whilst it focused on harmonizing individual and organizational needs, it also readily adopted the open-systems framework of the structural-functional perspective. French and Bell (1978) were largely responsible for articulating this approach when they characterized the perspective as a mixture of open-systems theory with humanistic values.Today, we can discern six essential characteristics of OD. These are: 1. A methodology informed largely by Action Research—a term coined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s. 2. Interventions should only result from careful organizational diagnosis (Tichy, Hornstein, and Nisberg, 1976). 3. A recognition that effective change requires process consultation (Schein, 1995) rather than negotiation through an individual in order to achieve corporate social responsibility in change initiatives.It should be noted that this is in line with OD’s humanistic approach to change. 4. An awareness of barriers to personal growth and organizational change , championed largely by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1973). 5. An emphasis on personal and organizational learning in contrast to training, proposed by Reg Revans (1982). 6. A recognition that groups and culture will influence change initiatives, articulated by Lewin (1951) and Schein and Bennis (1965). OD emerged as a distinctive discipline for managing change.It did so initially by adopting experiential approaches such as T-groups (training groups) and Lewin’s Force Field Analysis as a technique for managing organizational transitions. Action Research encouraged employees to develop a collaborative approach to diagnosing problems and engaging in action learning. Argyris’s book on Intervention Theory and Method (1970) is a comprehensive review of process-consultation techniques articulated by Schein (1995) and intervention techniques that became associated with the idea of planned, organization-wide change.Such change strategies were ‘managed from the top’ in o rder to ‘increase organizational effectiveness and health’ through interventions in the organization’s processes using behavioural science knowledge (Beckhard, 1969). Lewin’s (1951) three stages of change—unfreeze, change, refreeze—reflects the essence of the traditional OD approach through which a clear goal or destination is identified and cascaded to the organization’s members. This has been described as a linear model of change (Marshak, 1993) that tends to omit the 23 24 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE untidy parts of the process that do not fit neatly into Lewin’s framework’ (Inns 1996: 23). Most critics of Lewin’s planned change model make this argument. However, we must be cautious about this since, as we will see in Chapter 3, Lewin did not apply this approach to organization-level change. Often, OD proceeds with problem identification through the application of Action Research at the individual, the group, or the or ganizational level. Following careful diagnosis, intervention strategies are designed to deal with an organizational problem by applying various techniques.At the individual level, behaviour modification theory is often used to encourage personal growth. At the group level, intervention strategies are informed by analysis of group dynamics, whilst at the organizational level, strategic interventions are designed to manage strategic change through the application of technology, structural change, or change to human resources. We can understand how these interventions work by exploring them in greater depth. 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual level Strategies at the individual level were influenced by behaviour modification theory.The purpose of this technique is to increase the frequency of desired behaviours and reduce the frequency of undesired behaviours. Behaviour modification therefore seeks to modify the behaviours of individuals by training people to recognize a positive stimulus in order to provoke a desired response. It can also be used to change an individual’s reaction to fears and phobias. Intervention strategies used instead of behaviour modification theory include personal and management development techniques such as Lewin’s Force Field Analysis and learning interventions designed to improve personal learning. Stop and think 1. 4 We rarely remember modifying our own behaviour but we do this all the time. Think about the last time you learned a new skill. How difficult was this at first? During the learning process how did you modify your own behaviour or attitudes? How did evaluation lead to improvement? 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the group level At the group level, intervention strategies originated from studies of group dynamics including armed forces personnel, industrial workers, and professional groups. Group dynamics was first defined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s.Observations of groups led Lewin to note th at groups develop personalities as a result of their unique composition. Change was therefore more likely when the group as a whole made a collective decision to have its members change their behaviours. This was far more effective in producing the desired changes than more formal techniques such as lectures and PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE instruction. Lewin’s work became the foundation for training in group skills, sensitivity training, teambuilding, and OD. Groups therefore can be a major influence on change, or can inhibit change.However, the capability of a group to respond flexibly to change will depend on the degree to which its members: †¢ Explore problem-solving alternatives. †¢ Are motivated to achieve the objectives of the group. †¢ Make an effort to learn how to change. †¢ Discover what specifically needs to be changed to meet current demands. †¢ Are prepared to experiment. 25 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level At the or ganizational level, a greater depth was provided by a focus on planned change interventions.Planned change strategies, according to Chin and Benne (1976), emerged from the Enlightenment tradition with the application of rational thought to interventions in the modern world. In other words, changing things requires an application to reason. Associated with this was the pursuit of social progress. Chin and Benne describe a central element common to all planned change programmes as ‘the conscious utilisation and application of knowledge as an instrument or tool for modifying patterns and institutions of practice’ (1976: 22).Planned change interventions are therefore extremely varied but they fall under three broad headings: 1. Empirical–rational interventions, such as political interventions giving rise to new

Cultural Dimensions Essay

1)Give the definition and objectives of â€Å"your† cultural dimensions (what does the dimension measure? what do you want to measure? For instance : ability to work in groups, individual empowerment †¦ (for the individual/collective dimension). Diffuse and Specific orientated cultures – The most apparent difference is the ability to separate private from professional life. In diffused cultures, the private and professional lives are closely linked whereas specific cultures keep them separate. Additionally, specific cultures promote directness, precision, and transparency. Also, people from specific orientated cultures are able to remove themselves from a situation in regards to principles and values. This means that specific orientated cultures encourage objectivity. This is in contrast with the diffuse orientated culture that is more indirect and highly subjective. Furthermore, it can be said that this culture is more informal and social-orientated. 2)Illustrate the dimension referring not only to the professional life. Describe situations in which the dimension may impact behaviors. For instance : when somebody cries in the classroom,†¦ (for the neutral/ affective dimension). For example, if a manager is invited to dinner by employees, in a specific-orientated culture, the manager might decline the invitation as he or she wouldn’t feel it is appropriate whereas in a diffuse orientated culture this might be seen as an opportunity to bring informality to the relationship. So in a company based in Germany, this invitation would be seen as inappropriate because Germany has a more specific culture whereas in Finland this wouldn’t necessarily be frowned upon as it is more diffuse orientated. 3)In order to measure â€Å"your† dimension among persons of different nationality, prepare a series or questions (MCQ or Yes/No type are easier to analyze).

Contemporary Moral Issue (Philosophy) Assignment

Contemporary Moral Issue (Philosophy) - Assignment Example This is a number which cannot be determined with accuracy. The number is in the thousands, however, the exact number cannot be determined. One can only determine the answer to this question by saying the number of lives lost on September 11, 2001, exceeded one thousand. Based upon the number’s one can declare that the lives lost would be a moral determinant in declaring war. Whether, or not the governments of Afghanistan, and Iraq have been harboring terrorists is a question open to debate. One cannot determine with accuracy whether, or not the governments of Afghanistan, and Iraq have been harboring terrorists. Therefore, to base the morality of the War on Terrorism on this question alone would be difficult. How could one determine this with accuracy? If the governments of Afghanistan, and Iraq were harboring terrorists then it would make the war morally correct. To determine the morality of the War on Terrorism based on how many new powers law enforcement has been given through the United States Patriot Act is almost up for debate it. How could be one mind the new powers given to law enforcement through the USA Patriot Act? Whether, or not terrorists are being tortured in Iraq, and Afghanistan is open for debate. There is no factual evidence whether, or not the terrorists are being tortured. If terrorists are being tortured this would be an immoral act in itself. However, this would not make the War on Terrorism an immoral act. How many soldiers, and civilians were killed in Iraq is up for debate. One might say it is part of being in the middle of a war zone. This is part of the soldier’s job. The soldiers knew there might be a chance of death when the soldiers joined the military. Whether, or not the death of the soldiers, and civilians makes the War on Terrorism, an immoral act should not be debated. The civilian deaths are a tragedy, but only a mere side

Should Intelligent Design be taught in Public School Assignment

Should Intelligent Design be taught in Public School - Assignment Example Moreover, ID does not provide a basis whereby its claims can be tested. Since ID does not know how something works, it usually associates it with a higher power (Goodman, n.d). Therefore, if schools adopt ID as a science, then the children who are in schools today would not be adequately prepared to handle fields such as medicine or biology. There is a major controversy surrounding the teaching of ID in schools. For example, in 2005, a school in Pennsylvania was sued because it allowed its students to present ID as an alternative to creation as well as in explaining how life came to be. Research reveals that ID normally violates the rules of science that are centuries old. For example, ID invokes supernatural connection and it also attacks evolution negatively. As a result, ID has been entirely disproved by the scientific community (Ruse, 2012). In this perspective therefore, scientific experts argue that if ID is to be taught in schools, it should be taught in fields such as philosophy, religion and politics (Goodman, n.d). However, it should not be taught in any science course. This is because it would confuse the students especially regarding the various scientific concepts that are normally applied in biology and

Historical Documentary of Civil War Movie Review

Historical Documentary of Civil War - Movie Review Example The films show the war in different manners and applying different methods, and it is rather interesting to compare some of them. The aim of this paper is to compare such memorable documentaries about the Civil War as The Civil War of Ken Burns, Gettysburg Stories of Valor - CIVIL WAR MINUTESTM III by Keith Carradine and The Last Days of the Civil War. The paper will compare and contrast these films and show the importance of the documentaries for our understanding of American history and its main features, characters and events, as well as explain and evaluate how they are useful and not useful in their representation of history through television. 2. The Civil War of Ken Burns is a significant example of historical documentary. The filmmakers showed the Civil War with photos, voices of people who lived through the war and informative narration that helped spectators to feel the sense of epoch and time. In addition to that, Ken Burns "often gives life to still photographs by slowly zooming-in on subjects of interest and panning from one subject to another" (Ken Burns, From Wikipedia). This effect gives spectators a good opportunity to trace the main features of the film objects and events. The film consists of nine episodes and also includes about sixteen thousand photos, images, newspaper paintings, anecdotes and insights of different historians. It covers the period from the beginning of the war with the explanations of its causes till the end of the Civil War in 1865. Ken Burns underlined that "It was something that also became a kind of 'emotional archaeology,' trying to unearth the very heart of the American experience" ( Why I decided to make The Civil War). The film photos, as well as the narration give a good notion of the Civil War events and characters - so, the film is rather useful in its representation of the Civil war and American history in general. While watching the film, people can get a vivid understanding of real war characters and events - it is very important for those who are interested in American history. Such documentaries have in general very positive significance - they develop young people's historical knowledge and induce them to be proud of their country and their heroes, and television can play one of the main roles in this process. The Ken Burns' film The Civil War proves this statement - people have an opportunity to understand the historical process, find appropriate parallels with contemporary history events and analyze the events from the historical point of view. Television is a great instrument for people's education (especially for youth), and such documentaries whe re real pictures and impressions of real people are clearly shown can promote our interest for history. Documentary films (such as Ken Burns' The Civil War) can give an evident picture of the Civil War, and from this point of view documentary films differ from historical books. In addition to that, television and media technology play growing role in our understanding of historical and as follows world problems and

History class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

History class - Essay Example Galileo contributed a lot in the development of scientific method. He evolved his theories in an enthusiastic manner, such as the law that governs falling bodies. He would evaluate all the factors that might be helpful like the effect of air resistance and then he would hypothesize what would happen. Galileo framed a formula for the analysis of falling bodies which was s=gt2(s is the distance of the entire fall and t is the total time of the fall). Galileo contributed a lot in the field of theoretical physics, mathematics and physics of experimental nature and he developed a proper relationship among these fields. Galileo also set up standards of time and length in order to compare different experiment performed in different laboratories. Thus, we can say that Galileo was one of the greatest scientists and an aspiring mathematician of all times. Albert Einstein labeled him as the father of modern science. Mathematics changed its approach due to these scientists and mathematician and newer terms like calculus, parabola and logarithms can into existence in his

Training and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Training and Development - Essay Example Who receives the training in the organization and what are the topics? First, before conducting the training, managers are briefed on the key topics that will be covered as well as the courses to be discussed in length. Additionally, after briefings of the management, the employees are trained on the topics such as quality management, business continuity, information security and environmental management among others. What are the typical steps in the training process in your organization?The steps that I would consider when training is taking place are needs analysis. This is where the managers consider the audience program that is suited for them, their level of education among others. The next step I would incorporate is an instructional design where materials for learning are provided like video scripts, leaders guide among others. The next step that I will engage is validation where the introduction is done before a representative audience. The fourth step is implementation, whe re knowledge and skills learned, are implemented. Lastly is evaluation and follow up to make sure that the skills learned are used correctly.How are your training efforts evaluated for effectiveness and efficiency?Training efforts are evaluated for effectiveness and efficiency by the results were in the company improvement in job performance is acquired (John, 2008). The behavior of the learner’s performance following completion of the training will also indicate effectiveness and efficiency in the organization.

How do we become prepared for emergencies (hurricanes) What are the Thesis

How do we become prepared for emergencies (hurricanes) What are the contingency plans for emergency preparedness What are the costs of emergency preparedness - Thesis Example Members in United States Congress began to question FEMA and the federal government involvement in disaster preparedness, suggesting that changes must be made or that the Federal assistance programs themselves be dissolved due to the costs. The media immediately reacted, mostly based on the timing of these statements, and eventually a new dialogue emerged for the pundits to debate against, costs versus necessity. The questions posed cannot be seen as political statements, but as fundamental questions of emergency preparedness. In this piece, the following questions will be examined: How do we become prepared? What are the contingency plans for preparedness? What are the costs of preparedness? Understanding these questions will help governments respond and prepare within the roles and tasks required of them, ensuring citizenry and personal property are protected, as well as effectively planning and managing costs and allocations. A hurricane is technically a storm that has winds of 74 miles per hour or greater. According to Isaacs (2005), â€Å"A hurricane is a severe tropical cyclone that affects coastal areas, usually near or around tropical and subtropical regions where the water is warm† (pp. 23). Unlike a typhoon, which can be much more detrimental—hurricanes are put into classifications in order to classify them. Hurricanes are much more likely to be deadly than just any other normal storm. In this way, that is how hurricanes are exceptional. They can cause significant damage and ruin peoples’ lives. They leave people with a variety of problems to deal with in their aftermath, which will be discussed in the following sections. Typical hurricanes are usually up to at least 300 miles in diameter, although hurricanes vary in their sizes. The eye of the hurricane varies, but is usually about 20 to 40 miles in diameter in the midst of

HCM367-0801B-01 The Health Care Organization - Phase 2 Discussion Essay

HCM367-0801B-01 The Health Care Organization - Phase 2 Discussion Board - Essay Example of physicians, nurses and para-medics, and our health plan which provides medical and health care to thousands of patients, and group health plans which assist thousands of employees in various firms and their families is witness and testimony to the goodwill Vitruvian enjoys. Our involvement in the medical field makes it obligatory for us to pursue excellence while providing the healing touch. Our principles and policies have been established and nurtured over the years which speak for themselves on the course we have chosen in spite of difficulties and hurdles that came our way. There is no question of any deviation on issues concerning our vision and mission. As has always been the case, we will continue to involve in the best practices, attract the best medical professionals, follow the best ethical and business standards, and provide the most effective care and services to society at large for the mutual benefits of our patients as well as our staff and partners. Medical treatment and practices have existed since the foundation of the world. A great amount of faith and fellowship blended with the line of treatment that Dr Montenegro espoused and demonstrated. It challenged the modern day often misinterpreted belief that the best medical treatment can be found only in technologically advanced facilities. Many times these advanced facilities are resorted to even when simpler ones would have sufficed. Nevertheless, the scope to harness the best in technology does exist. As is the case in the medical fraternity the world over, and keeping in view the tremendous potential in the medical technology of the day, it is imperative that we have access to the best medical treatment and facilities for the mutual benefit of our patients and our organization, as and when required. The guiding principles enshrined in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) will continue to be operational in the future as it is so now. Any changes or modifications required in the days ahead

Problem Cell Phones Essay Example for Free

Problem Cell Phones Essay A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone, and a hand phone) is a device that can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link while moving around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile phone operator, allowing access to the public telephone network. By contrast, a cordless telephone is used only within the short range of a single, private base station. In addition to telephony, modern mobile phones also support a wide variety of other services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming and photography. Mobile phones that offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones. Disadvantages Advantages of Cell phone According to : http://vidyaprakash. expertscolumn. com/article/disadvantages-cell-phones Cell phone is playing an important role in this modern world. It is very hard to see a person without a mobile phone. Even a little kid have the ability to access the cell phone fluently without any problem. Kids are very much interested in playing games in mobile phone and spending a lot of time with it. As we know too much of cell phone usage is not good for us and it will give some unwanted health issues. Cell phone will create some unwanted radiation which is not good for our brain. A person who is using cell for a long time will surely get health issues due to it. We must control our cell activities. Avoid using it for a long time and use it whenever necessary. Listening music using the ear phone is the new trend of the youngsters and most of the persons are interested in listening music with their hands free while riding their two wheeler. Really it is a dangerous thing which causes a lot of unwanted accidents. Most of the two wheeler accidents are happened due to this activity. Now we are living a fast life and dont have enough time to meet our friends and family members. Simply we make a call to them and ask about their updates. Previously people will meet their friends and beloved persons directly and ask about their present status, but now it is easy to communicate with anyone using the phone and most of the persons are converted to this trend it reduce the get together and social reunions a lot. Students will get diversion with cell phones, they are spending a lot of time with cell phone chatting and browsing online through their smart phone and reduce their studying activity. Most of the students are turned as cell phone and online addicts which is a great disadvantage. There is nothing wrong in using cell phone, we must use it in a limited manner to avoid unwanted issues due to it. Statement of the problem Cell phones have recently become an asset to society. Because of this, many of the negatives to cell phone ownership have been overlooked. Just a few of these problems are : Increases the likelihood of traffic accidents Increases the risk of brain cancer Scope and Limitations The research that I will conduct is only limited to students, particularly 4th year – Springtime batch 2013-2014 II. Review of related Literatures This section presents a summary of previous research materials. Information found within this section is all found in the web and journals. Cell phones do more harm than good According to: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Mobile_phone A hand-held mobile radiotelephone is an old dream of radio engineering. Arthur C. Clarke in a 1959 essay, where he envisioned a personal transceiver, so small and compact that every man carries one. He wrote: the time will come when we will be able to call a person anywhere on Earth merely by dialing a number. Such a device would also, in Clarkes vision, include means for global positioning so that no one need ever again be lost. Later, in Profiles of the Future, he predicted the advent of such a device taking place in the mid-1980s The most commonly used data application on mobile phones is SMS text messaging. The first SMS text message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK, while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, including keeping in touch with family members, conducting business, and having access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one cell phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may also be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans—a particular plan might provide cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming. The most advantage of having mobile phone is you can communicate with your family, and friends no matter where you are. Cell phones also have applications for listening to music, playing games, and surfing the net. Besides that, there are lots of disadvantages. Using mobile phones can harm our brains, especially for those who are under the age of sixteen. Excessive use of mobile phones has been accused of causing dizziness, and â€Å"radiations emitted from the phone are harmful for the eardrum†, say many scientists. In addition, when we use mobile phones while driving it causes unwanted accidents. Negative effects of cell phones on our brain Radiation from mobile phones may cause brain tissue damage, a two-year study has found. Scientists discovered that emissions from handsets affect the delicate make-up of cells in blood vessels, and could be a health hazard to regular users of the UKs 50million mobile phones. The radiation might disable a safety barrier in the body which protects the brain from harmful substances in the blood, they believe. It is the first time scientists have used cells from human blood vessels rather than rats, bringing researchers closer to the truth about long-term mobile phone use. Despite the millions spent on research in the last decade, the health implications of sustained use are still unclear. The biggest British study, led by Sir William Stewart, found two years ago that there was no evidence of a risk to health. A study published last year by the American National Cancer Institute also could not find a link between increased risk of brain cancer and mobile use. III. Research Methodology Research Design Name: Age: Sex: 1. How often do you use your cell phone ? 2. Do you know that using cell phone too much causes unwanted damages to the brain ? If yes. Do you believe that children below 10 years of age shouldn’t use cell phones ? 3. Is it really necessary for a person to have a cell phone ? Explain. 4. Is cell phone a disadvantage or advantage to your life ? Explain. Data Gathering Procedure The researcher will randomly ask ten (10 ) representatives out of the 37 students in the 4th year. A questionnaire was prepared by the researcher that will be used as a reference. The survey was conducted through the net. IV. Analysis and Interpretation of Data This chapter presents the findings, analysis and interpretation of data gathered by the researcher whose main objective is to find out the different perspectives of people and to find out what kind of damage our cell phone will do to our brain and also to state some advantages of it. Through my research I’ve found out that many scientist have and will conduct research about the radiation that we can get from cell phones. Mostly scientist from America conducts these kinds of researches. I also found out that the radiation of the cell phone emits is dangerous to all of us. Especially those who are 16 years of age and below. I also found out that there is not enough proof that cell phones can really damage our brain. Someone said that it is early for us to conclude that cell phones are bad for our health. Because even scientists can’t really find the right answer to our questions. A scientist said that we don’t know what will be the impact of the radiation of the cell phone emits will do to us if we still use it for the next 10 or even 20 years. He also said that that is the reason why we need to conduct more studies. According to my survey 9 out of 10 said that they always use their cell phones. 9 out 10 said that they know that using cell phone too much causes unwanted damages to the brain. 10 out of 10 said that having cell phone is necessary because it’s time for us to upgrade and use the cell phone to communicate and because it is easier to do, it also takes less of our time if we use our cell phones as I have said in my introduction cell phones are wireless, we can use them anywhere. 5 out of 10 said that cell phones are advantages to their lives. Because it makes almost everything easy. 1 out of 10 said that it is a disadvantage because is makes us lazy. 4 out of 10 said that they pick advantage and disadvantage.

Importance of Understanding Biological Basis of Behaviour

Importance of Understanding Biological Basis of Behaviour This essay will first of all attempt to briefly distinguish between some of the bases of understanding behaviour. Next, the biological approach will be elaborated and this will be followed by a succinct evaluation of the strengths and criticisms of this approach. Behaviour can be understood from different bases (approaches). Among these include Behaviourist, Cognitive, Psychodynamic, Humanistic and Biological approaches (Glassman and Hadad, 2013). The behavioural approach assumes that behaviour is created or modified by environmental factors, irrespective of the mind (Chance, 2013). Vice versa, understanding behaviour from a cognitive basis involves the consideration of internal events (mediators) between a stimulus and behaviour. Contrary to the biological approach, these internal events are conceptual rather than physiological (Gardner, 2008). Similarly, the psychodynamic approach assumes that behaviour is shaped by internal mental processes. On the contrary, it focuses on the motivation of behaviour (intentionality). Such motivation influences personality and thereby influences behaviour (Glassman, Glassman and Hadad, 2008). From a humanistic perspective, behaviour is understood from an individual’s subjective experiences (phenomeno logical viewpoint), a free will of individuals to behave which is not influenced by immediate or past stimuli (the capacity of choice) and the value individuals place on their experiences and actions (the role of meaning) (Fernald, 2008). In the biological approach, behaviour is as result of neurological, genetic and physiological processes. The brain and the central nervous system play a key role in determining behaviour. Changes in the growth of the brain are genetically determined and result in psychological and behavioural development. A well-functioning nervous system depicts normal behaviour. Abnormal behaviour is usually characterised by bodily (organic) or genetic disorders, chemical imbalances, brain injury or mental illness. Consequently, the modes of treatment include the use of drugs, psychosurgery and electroconvulsive therapy. These are used to treat the underlying causes of the illness or to relieve symptoms (Sanders, 2014). There are various strengths in understanding behaviour from a biological basis (approach). The biological basis of understanding behaviour has improved our understanding of behaviour. It has successfully proved the impact of genetic factors in explaining behaviour (including individual differences) such as intelligence and some mental disorders. For example, twin studies have shown that behaviour such as susceptibility to mental disorders (Posthuma and Polderman, 2013) and intelligence (FraniĆ¡ et al, 2014) is shaped by genetic factors. The biological approach to understanding behaviour often takes a reductionist approach. Hence, various experimental studies have provided useful results in understanding behaviour. For example, physiological and genetic studies have contributed immensely to our understanding of sleep (Wyatt et al, 1999, Allebrandt et al, 2011, Dauvilliers, Maret and Tafti, 2005). Understanding behaviour from a biological basis has been usefully applied in psychopathology. It has been beneficial in the use of chemotherapy to treat mental disorders such as depression, anxiety and schizophrenia (Rockstroh, 2001). Genetic counselling for couples is as a result of our understanding of the relation that exists between genes and behaviour. This could be of great relief for some couples who carry a gene that makes their children susceptible to a fatal disease (Harper, 2010). It is also believed that understanding behaviour in its biological context could help in generalisations between animals and humans (Larsson, 2003). Despite these strengths, the biological basis of understanding behaviour faces some criticisms. It is argued that a thorough understanding of behaviour cannot be established from studying only biological factors. Social, cultural and psychological factors have also been shown to have an influence on behaviour. It has therefore been criticised for not including these factors in explaining behaviour (Glassman and Hadad, 2013). Furthermore, some have stressed that behaviour is a process and not a substance as portrayed in the biological approach (Greenberg, 2011, Overton, 2006). From a biological perspective, there is great emphasis of the role of genetic factors in shaping behaviour. However, this relation has been shown to be indirect and understood poorly. For example, a twin study by Plomin et al. (1990) found that television watching is influenced by genetic factors, but it is unclear how genes cause such effect. In conclusion, understanding behaviour from only a biological basis seems inadequate. This calls for consideration of other approaches to address its limitations. Total word count: 699 References: Allebrandt, K., Amin, N., Mà ¼ller-Myhsok, B., Esko, T., Teder-Laving, M., Azevedo, R., Hayward, C., Van Mill, J., Vogelzangs, N. and Green, E. (2011) A KATP channel gene effect on sleep duration: from genome-wide association studies to function in Drosophila. Molecular Psychiatry [online]. 18 (1), pp.122-132. [Accessed 16 October 2014] Chance, P. (2013) Learning and Behavior. Cengage Learning. Dauvilliers, Y., Maret, S. and Tafti, M. (2005) Genetics of normal and pathological sleep in humans. Sleep Medicine Reviews [online]. 9 (2), pp.91-100. [Accessed 14 October 2014] Fernald, L.D. (2008) Psychology: Six Perspectives. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. FraniĆ¡, S., Dolan, C.V., van Beijsterveldt, C.E., Pol, H.E.H., Bartels, M. and Boomsma, D.I. (2014) Genetic and Environmental Stability of Intelligence in Childhood and Adolescence. Twin Research and Human Genetics [online]. 17 (03), pp.151-163. [Accessed 19 October 2014] Gardner, H. (2008) The Minds New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution. Basic books. Glassman, W., Glassman, W.E. and Hadad, M. (2008) Approaches to Psychology. McGraw-Hill International. Glassman, W.E. and Hadad, M. (2013) Approaches to Psychology. London: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Greenberg, G. (2011) The failure of biogenetic analysis in psychology: Why psychology is not a biological science. Research in Human Development [online]. 8 (3-4), pp.173-191. [Accessed 14 October 2014] Harper, P.S. (2010) Practical Genetic Counselling. Hodder Arnold London. Larsson, K. (2003) My way to biological psychology. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology [online]. 44 (3), pp.173-187. [Accessed 25 October 2014] Overton, W.F. (2006) Developmental psychology: Philosophy, concepts, methodology. Handbook of Child Psychology. Plomin, R., Corley, R., DeFries, J.C. and Fulker, D.W. (1990) Individual differences in television viewing in early childhood: Nature as well as nurture. Psychological Science [online]. 1 (6), pp.371-377. [Accessed 29 October 2014] Posthuma, D. and Polderman, T.J. (2013) What have we learned from recent twin studies about the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders? Current Opinion in Neurology [online]. 26 (2), pp.111-121. [Accessed 30 October 2014] Rockstroh, B. (2001) Contributions of biological psychology to psychopathology. Biological Psychology [online]. 57 (1), pp.1-4. [Accessed 20 October 2014] Sanders, R.L. (2014) Biological Psychology. London: Learning Matters. Wyatt, J.K., Ritz-De Cecco, A., Czeisler, C.A. and Dijk, D.J. (1999) Circadian temperature and melatonin rhythms, sleep, and neurobehavioral function in humans living on a 20-h day. The American Journal of Physiology [online]. 277 (4 Pt 2), pp.R1152-63. [Accessed 30 October 2014] 1

The Hydrogen Secret :: Alternative Fuel Power Energy

The world is developing at a faster rate than ever before. As a result natural resources continue to be exhausted worldwide. Oil, once an abundant resource in the earth, is depleting at an ever growing rate. Oil costs continue to rise as the world depends on it more and more. Governments are investing billions of dollars every year into alternate energy research with hydrogen as the front runner. This is free money companies are receiving to research and develop hydrogen-powered vehicles. It's no wonder why people are lured into the hydrogen revolution. Each type of alternate energy comes with its own pros and cons. Like any product, the marketers will only mention the pros of the product they are selling and the cons of their competitors. In the end whoever has the most money, wins. Hydrogen powered vehicles have received the most attention in the last year. Unfortunately the hydrogen revolution isn't the savior that it's hyped up to be. The world cannot continue to rely on oil for its source of energy; an alternate form is needed but any more time or money invested into hydrogen as that alternate source may prove to be a big waste. In nature hydrogen is always found combined with other elements, which means it has to be manually made by passing an electric current through water to form hydrogen and oxygen. There is a tremendous amount of energy involved in splitting the molecules to free the hydrogen from its captor. The current method of producing hydrogen from water is through the use of oil and coal. Oil and coal are the two main resources the world is trying to cut back on. The main purpose of using hydrogen is lost when considering the actual manufacturing process of hydrogen contributes a significant amount of carbon dioxide. When the big coal and oil companies start investing their profits in hydrogen, something has gone awry. Each company sees its future limited and wants to ensure their survival. Since they have the most money they will be the main producer of hydrogen. The hydrogen economy will benefit the mining and oil industry at the cost of the clean-energy dream. Hydrogen will prove to be a difficult energy to sell in the short term. Even though vehicles are still in the development stages, the current hydrogen prototype costs are in the million dollar range. Hydrogen is the smallest element in the universe; to get enough useful energy to power the vehicle, hydrogen has to be compressed to an extremely high-pressure.

Defining the Ideal in Platos The Republic Essay -- Philosophy Religio

Defining the Ideal in Plato's The Republic In 1921, Vance Palmer, the famous Australian author and poet, noted, in his essay titled "On Boundaries", that "it is the business of thought to define things, to find the boundaries; thought, indeed, is a ceaseless process of definition". As Palmer noted, humans, by their very nature, attempt to define all things. But, more than that, we attempt to redefine subjects and ideas that have already been defined so that we can better understand what they mean, where we came from, and, perhaps most importantly of all, who we are. Writers, from the beginning of the written word through the present, have, almost in their entirety, strived to cast a new light on subjects that were previously thought to have been completely understood. Specifically, Plato, in his The Republic, struggled to define the ideal in the materialistic world. But, even after accounting for his opposition to the arts, his quest to define the ideal can exceptionally beneficial to the understanding of the theater. O nly through an exploration of these definitions of the ideal can one hope to understand them, and, more importantly, redefine them in the hope to create a new understanding of the medium and to move one step closer to perfection. In his Poetics, Plato defined his view of the world and the ideals that are a part of it. The core of Platonic thought resides in Plato's doctrine of essences, ideas, and forms. Ultimate reality, he argues, is spiritual. This spiritual realm, called The One, is composed of ideal forms or absolutes that exist whether or not any human mind realizes ... ... The perfect play may exist in the realm of Plato's The One, but I doubt that that ideal has ever been recorded. Perfection is something for which everyone has his or her own definition and opinion. How I define the ideal play will not be the same way that others define it -- and that quality is what makes it ideal. For in the unity created through the differing opinions, thoughts, and dreams, the ideal can be seen. And when someone captures that vision, and, most importantly, is able to record that vision in the form of the written word, that person will be the embodiment of perfection. That person will stood on the perfect table and looked into the perfect sky, seen the perfect play, and captured the ideal from Plato's The One. Of course, where can we go from there?

Compromise of 1850 Essay -- essays research papers

In January of 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill, which is now in present-day California. From 1848-1849, 300,000 people rushed to California in search of gold. These gold-seekers, nicknamed â€Å"Forty-Niners†, came from all over the world. Most of the Forty-Niners came from the rest of America, but some even came from Europe, Australia, Latin America, and Asia. Because of the huge gold rush, roads, churches, schools, canals, cities, and towns were established in the California area. This new economic explosion influenced California to become a state in the Union. In late 1849, California applied for admission as a free state in the Union. The problem with this request was the geographical dividing line that congress created in the Missouri Compromise to separate the free states in the north, and the slave states in the south. The dividing line went right through the middle of California, making congress debate whether California should be a free state or a slave state. Congressmen argued over the topic, bringing Henry Clay out of retirement to help figure out a compromise. Clay...